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Fasting
or Saum:
Saum:
The primary signification of
saum is abstaining, in an absolute
sense1.
In the technical language of the Islamic law, saum
and siyam signify fasting or abstaining from
food and drink and sexual intercourse from dawn till
sunset.
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1
Al-imsaku 'ani-l-fi'l, which includes
abstaining from eating or speaking or moving about.
Thus a horse that abstains from moving about, or
from fodder, is said to be sa'im, and wind
is said to be saum when it abates, and the
day when it reaches the midpoint (R.). In the sense
of abstaining from speech, the word is used in the
Quran in the early Makkah revelation: "Say, I have
vowed a fast to the Beneficent God, so I shall not
speak to any man today" (19:26).
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Institution
of Fasting in Islam:
The institution of fasting in
Islam came after the institution of prayer. It was in
Madinah in the second year of Hijrah that fasting was made
obligatory, and the month of Ramadzan (Note by the
webmaster: The ninth lunar month of the Islamic calendar)
was set apart for this purpose. Before that the Prophet used
to fast, as an optional devotion, on the tenth day of
Muharram, and he also ordered his followers to fast on that
day, it being a fasting day for the Quraish as well,
according to 'A'ishah (Bu. 30:1). The origin of fasting in
Islam may thus be traced to the time when the Prophet was
still at Makkah; but, according to Ibn 'Abbas, it was after
his flight to Madinah that he saw the Jews fasting on the
tenth day of Muharram; and being told that Moses had kept a
fast on that day in commemoration of the delivery of the
Israelites from Pharaoh, he remarked that they (Muslims)
were nearer to Moses than the Jews and ordered that day to
be observed as a day of fasting (Bu. 30:69).
A Universal
Institution:
In the Quran, the subject of
fasting is dealt with only in one place, that is, in the
23rd section of the second chapter; though there
is mention on other occasions of fasting by way of expiation
(fidyah) in certain cases. This section opens with
the remark that the institution of fasting is a universal
one. "O you who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you as it
was prescribed for those before you, so that you may guard
against evil" (2:183). The truth of the statement made here
– that fasting "was prescribed for those before you"
– is borne out by a reference to religious history. The
practice of fasting has been recognised well-nigh
universally in all the higher, revealed religions, though
the same stress is not laid on it in all, and the forms and
motives vary. "Its modes and motives vary considerably
according to climate, race, civilisation and other
circumstances; but it would be difficult to name any
religious system of any description in which it is wholly
unrecognised" (En. Br., art. Fasting).
Confucianism, according to the writer in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, is the only
exception. Zoroastrianism, which is sometimes mentioned as
another exception, is stated as enjoining, "Upon the
priesthood at least, no fewer than five yearly fasts."
Present-day Christianity may not attach much value to
religious devotions of this sort, but not only did the
Founder of Christianity himself keep a fast for forty days
and observe fasting on the Day of Atonement like a true Jew,
but also commended fasting to his disciples: "Moreover, when
ye fast, be not as the hypocrites, of a sad countenance . .
. But thou, when you fastest, anoint thine head, and wash
thy face" (Mt. 6:16, 17). It appears that his disciples did
fast, but not as often as did those of the Baptist, and when
questioned on that point, his reply was that they would fast
more frequently when he was taken away (Lk. 5:33-35). The
early Christians are also spoken of as fasting (Acts 13:2,
3; 14:23) . Even St. Paul fasted (II Cor. 6:5;
11:27).
New Meaning
Introduced by Islam:
Cruden's remark in his
Bible Concordance that fasting in all nations
was resorted to "in times of mourning, sorrow and
afflictions" is borne out by the facts. Among the Jews,
generally, fasting was observed as a sign of grief or
mourning. Thus, David is mentioned as fasting for seven days
during the illness of his infant son (II Sam. 12:16-18);
and, as a sign of mourning, fasting is mentioned in I Sam.
31:13 and elsewhere. Besides the Day of Atonement, which was
prescribed by the Mosaic law as a day of fasting (Lev.
16:29) – the people being required to "afflict" their
souls while the priest made an atonement for them to cleanse
them of their sins – various other fast-days came into
vogue after the Exile "in sorrowful commemoration of the
various sad events which had issued in the downfall of the
kingdom of Judah" (En. Br.). Four of these
became regular fasting-days, "commemorating the beginning of
the siege of Jerusalem, the capture of the city, the
destruction of the temple and the assassination of Gedaliah"
(ibid.). Thus it was generally some trouble or sad
event of which the memory was kept up by a fast. Moses's
fasting for forty days – which example was later
followed by Jesus Christ – seems to be the only
exception, and the fast, in this case, was kept preparatory
to receiving a revelation. Christianity did not introduce
any new meaning into the fast; Christ's words that his
disciples would fast oftener when he was taken away from
their midst, only lend support to the Jewish conception of
the fast, as connected with national grief or
mourning.
The idea underlying this voluntary
suffering in the form of a fast in times of sorrow and
affliction seems to have been to propitiate an angry Deity
and excite compassion in Him. The idea that fasting was a
act of penitence seems gradually to have developed from this
as an affliction or calamity was considered to be due to
sin, and fasting thus became an outward expression of the
change of heart brought about by repentance. It was in Islam
that the practice received a highly developed significance.
It rejected in toto the idea of appeasing Divine
wrath, or exciting Divine compassion through voluntary
suffering and introduced in its place regular and continuous
fasting, irrespective of the condition of the individual or
the nation, as a means, like prayer, to the development of
the inner faculties of man. Though the Quran speaks of
expiatory or compensatory fasts in certain cases of
violation of the Divine law, yet these are quite distinct
from the obligatory fasting in the month of Ramadzan, and
are mentioned only as an alternative to an act of charity,
such as the feeding of the poor or freeing of a slave.
Fasting, as an institution, is here made a spiritual, moral
and physical discipline of the highest order, and this is
made clear by changing both the form and the motive. By
making the institution permanent, all ideas of distress,
affliction and sin are dissociated from it, while its true
object is made plain, which is "that you may guard
(tattaqun)." The word ittiqa from which
tattaqun is derived, means the guarding of a thing
from what harms or injures it, or the guarding of
self against that of which the evil consequences may be
feared (R.). But besides this, the word has been freely
used in the Quran in the sense of fulfilment of duties, as
in 4:1 where arham (ties of relationship) occurs as
an object of ittaqu, or, as generally in
ittaqu-llah where Allah is the object of
ittaqu, and therefore the significance of
ittiqa in all these cases is a fulfilment of
obligations. In fact, in the language of the Quran, to be a
muttaqi is to attain to the highest stage of
spiritual development. "Allah is the friend of the
muttaqin" (45:19); "Allah loves the muttaqin"
(3:75; 9:4, 7); "Allah is with the muttaqin" (2:194;
9:36, 123); "The good end is for the muttaqin"
(7:128; 11:49; 28:83); "For the muttaqin is an
excellent resort" (38:49) – these and numerous similar
passages show clearly that the muttaqi, according to
the Quran, is the man who has attained to the highest stage
of spiritual development. And as the object of fasting is to
be a muttaqi, the conclusion is evident that the
Quran enjoins fasting with the object of making man ascend
the spiritual heights.
A Spiritual
Discipline:
Fasting, according to Islam,
is primarily a spiritual discipline: On two occasions in
Quran (9:112; 66:5), those who fast are called sa'ih
(from saha meaning he travelled) or
spiritual wayfarers; and according to one authority, when a
person refrains, not only from food and drink but from all
kinds of evil, he is called a sa'ih (R.). While
speaking of Ramadzan, the month in which fasting is
ordained, the Quran specially refers to nearness to God, as
if its attainment were an aim in fasting, and then adds: "So
they should hear My call (by fasting) and believe in Me,
that they may walk in the right way" (2:186). In Tradition
too, special stress is laid on the fact that the seeking of
Divine pleasure should be the ultimate object in fasting:
"Whoever fasts during Ramadzan, having faith in Me and
seeking My pleasure" (Bu. 2:28). The Prophet said, "Fasting
is a shield, so the faster should not indulge in foul speech
. . . and surely the breath of a fasting man is pleasanter
to Allah than the odour of musk; he refrains from food and
drink and other desires to seek My pleasure: fasting is for
Me only" (Bu. 30:2). No temptation is greater than the
temptation of satisfying one's thirst and hunger when drink
and food are in one's possession, yet this temptation is
overcome not once or twice, as if it were by chance, but day
after day regularly for a whole month, with a set purpose of
drawing closer and closer to the Divine Being. A man can
avail himself of the best diet, yet he prefers to remain
hungry; he has the cool drink in his possession, yet he is
parching with thirst; he touches neither food nor drink,
simply because he thinks that it is the commandment of God
that he should not do so. In the inner recesses, there is
none to see him if he pours down his dry and burning throat
a glass of delicious drink, yet there has developed in him
the sense of the nearness to God to such an extent that he
would not put a drop of it on his tongue. Whenever a new
temptation comes before him, he overcomes it, because, just
at the critical moment, there is an inner voice, "God is
with me," "God sees me." Not the deepest devotion can of
itself develop that sense of nearness to God and of His
presence everywhere, which fasting day after day for a whole
month does. The Divine presence, which may be a matter of
faith to others, becomes a reality for him, and this is made
possible by the spiritual discipline underlying fasting. A
new consciousness of a higher life, a life above that which
is maintained by eating and drinking, has been awakened in
him, and this is the life spiritual.
A Moral
Discipline:
There is also a moral
discipline underlying fasting, for it is the training ground
where man is taught the greatest moral lesson of his life
– the lesson that he should be prepared to suffer the
greatest privation and undergo the hardest trial rather than
indulge in that which is not permitted to him. That lesson
is repeated from day to day for a whole month, and just as
physical exercise strengthens man physically, moral exercise
through fasting, the exercise of abstaining from everything
that is not allowed, strengthens the moral side of his life.
The idea that everything unlawful must be eschewed and that
evil must be hated is thus developed through fasting.
Another aspect of the moral development of man by this means
is that he is thus taught to conquer his physical desires.
He takes his food at regular intervals and that is no doubt
a desirable rule of life, but fasting for one month in the
year teaches him the higher lesson that, instead of being
the slave of his appetites and desires, he should be their
master, being able to change the course of his life if he
wills it. The man who is able to rule his desires, to make
them work as he likes, in whom will-power is so developed
that he can command himself, is the man who has attained to
true moral greatness.
Social
Value of Fasting:
In addition to its spiritual
and moral values, fasting as prescribed in the Quran has
also a social value, more effective than that which is
realised through prayer. Rich and poor, great and small,
residents of the same vicinity are brought together five
times daily in the mosque on terms of perfect equality, and
thus healthy social relations are established through
prayer. But the commencement of the month of Ramadzan is a
signal for a mass movement towards equality which is not
limited to one vicinity or even one country but affects the
whole Muslim world. The rich and the poor may stand shoulder
to shoulder in one row in the mosque, but in their homes
they live in different environments. The rich sit down on
tables laden with dainties and with these they load their
stomachs four, even six, times daily; while the poor cannot
find sufficient food with which to satisfy their hunger even
twice a day. The latter often feel the pangs of hunger to
which the former are utter strangers; how can the one feel
for the other and sympathise with him? A great social
barrier thus exists between the two classes in their homes,
and this barrier is removed only when the rich are made to
feel the pangs of hunger like their poorer brethren and go
without food throughout the day, and this experience has to
be gone through, not for a day or two, but for a whole
month. The rich and the poor are thus, throughout the Muslim
world, brought on the same level in that they are both
allowed only two meals a day, and though these meals may not
be exactly the same, the rich have perforce to shorten their
menu and to adopt a simpler fare and thus come closer to
their poorer brethren. This course undoubtedly awakens
sympathy for the poor in the hearts of the rich, and it is
for this reason that the helping of the poor is specially
enjoined in the month of Ramadzan.
Physical
Value of Fasting:
Refraining from food during
stated intervals does no physical harm to a healthy person.
On the contrary, it does some good. But fasting has yet
another, and a more important, physical value. The man who
cannot face the hardships of life, who is not able to live,
at times, without his usual comforts, cannot be said to be
even physically fit for life on this earth. The moment such
a man is involved in difficulty or distress, as he must be
every now and again, his strength is liable to give way.
Fasting accustoms him to face the hardships of life, being
in itself a practical lesson to that end, and increases his
powers of resistance.
The Month
of Ramadzan:
With some exceptions, which
will be mentioned later on, Muslims are required to fast for
29 or 30 days of the month of Ramadzan. The exact number
depends on the appearance of the moon which may be after 29
or 30 days. Fasting commences with the new moon of Ramadzan
and ends on the appearance of the new moon of Shawwal (Note
by the webmaster: The tenth lunar month of the Islamic
calendar). The Prophet is reported to have said: "We are a
people who neither write nor do we keep account; the month
is thus and thus, showing (by his fingers) once twenty-nine
and again thirty" (Bu. 30:13). Another tradition says: "The
Prophet mentioned Ramadzan and said, "Do not fast until you
see the new moon and do not break fasting until you see it
(again), and if it is cloudy, calculate its appearance" (Bu.
30:11; M. 13:2). Another says that if it is cloudy, thirty
days should be completed (Bu. 30:11). To begin and end by
the actual appearance of the new moon2
was the easier method for a "people who did not know
writing, and did not keep account," and it is still the
easier method for the vast masses living in villages and
distant places, but the tradition quoted above also allows
that the appearance of the moon may be judged by
computation. There is however an express prohibition against
fasting when the appearance of the moon is doubtful (yaum
al-shakk) (AD. 14:10).
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2
The actual appearance of the moon may be
established by the evidence of a single man if he
be trustworthy. It is related that on a certain
occasion the people of Madinah were doubtful about
the appearance of the new moon of Ramadzan and they
had decided not to fast, when a man came from the
desert and gave evidence that he had seen the new
moon. And the Prophet accepted his evidence and
directed the people to fast (AD. 14:14).
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Choice of
Ramadzan:
The injunction laid down in
the Quran, relating to fasting in the month of Ramadzan,
runs as follows: "The month of Ramadzan is that in which the
Quran was revealed, a guidance to men and clear proofs of
guidance and the Criterion. So whoever of you is present in
the month, he shall fast therein" (2:185). It will be seen
from the words of the injunction that the choice of this
particular month for fasting is not without a reason. It has
been chosen because it is the month in which the Quran was
revealed. It is well-known that the Quran was revealed
piecemeal during a period of twenty-three years; therefore
by its revelation in the month of Ramadzan is meant that its
revelation first began in that month. And this is
historically true. The first revelation came to the Prophet
on the 24th night of the month of Ramadzan when
he was in the cave of Hira (IJ-C. 2:185). It was therefore
in Ramadzan that the first ray of Divine light fell on the
Prophet's mind, and the angel Gabriel made his appearance
with the great Divine message. The month which witnessed the
greatest spiritual experience of the Prophet was thus
considered to be the most suitable month for the spiritual
discipline of the Muslim community, which was to be effected
through fasting.
There are evident reasons for choosing
a lunar month. The advantages and disadvantages of the
particular season in which it falls are shared by the whole
world. A solar month would have given the advantages of
shorter days and cooler weather to one part of the world,
and burdened the other with the disadvantages of longer days
of hotter weather. The lunar month is more in consonance
with the universal nature of teachings of Islam, and all
people have the advantages and disadvantages equally
distributed. On the other hand, if a particular time had not
been specified the discipline would have lost all its value.
It is due to the choice of a particular month, that with its
advent the whole Muslim world is, as it were, moved by one
current from one end to the other. The movement effected by
the advent of Ramadzan in the Muslim world is the greatest
mass movement on the face of the earth. The rich and the
poor, the high and the low, the master and the servant, the
ruler and the ruled, the black and the white, the Eastern
and the Western, from one end of the earth to the other,
suddenly change the course of their lives when they witness
the tiny crescent of Ramadzan making its appearance on the
western horizon. There is no other example of a mass
movement on this scale on the face of the earth, and this is
due to the specification of a particular month.
Persons who
may not Fast:
The injunction to fast is laid
down only for those who witness the coming of the
month, man shahida min-kum alshahra. The verb
shahida is from the infinitive shahada, which
means the bearing of witness; so the
injunction to fast is laid upon those only who witness the
coming of the month. Evidently all people who live in places
where the division into twelve months does not exist, are
excluded from the purview of the injunction. Fasting is not
compulsory in their case.
People who are exempted are specially
mentioned either in the Quran or in the Tradition. The Quran
mentions the sick and those on journey in the following
words: "But whoever among you is sick or on a journey, (he
shall fast) a like number of other days. And those who find
it extremely hard3
may effect redemption by feeding a poor man" (2:184). This
is not an absolute exemption for the sick man and the
traveller; they are required to fast afterwards, when the
sickness has gone or when the journey ends, but there may be
cases of protracted illness or constant journeying, and such
people are allowed to effect a redemption by feeding a poor
man for every fast missed. Tradition makes a further
extension and gives relaxation to certain classes of people
who, on account of some physical disability, are not able to
fast. It is related of Anas that he used to feed a poor man
when he grew too old to fast (Bu. 65, surah 2, ch. 25), and
Ibn 'Abbas is reported to have held that the words "those
who find it hard to do so may effect a redemption" relate to
the old man and old woman and the pregnant woman and the
woman that suckles a child, and that all of them are allowed
to break the fast, -- the latter two, only if they fear for
the child – and feed a poor man instead (AD. 14:3).
This view was also held by Hasan and Ibrahim (Bu. 65, surah
2, ch. 25). It will be seen that the underlying idea is that
a burden should not be placed on any one, which he is unable
to bear. The case of old people who have become enfeebled by
age is very clear while in the case of pregnant and nursing
women, the permission to effect a redemption is due to the
fact that fasting may cause harm to the unborn baby, or the
baby that is being nursed, as well as the woman herself; and
as she is likely to remain in this condition for a
sufficiently long time, she is given the benefit of the
relaxation. Sickly people and those who are too weak to bear
the burden would be dealt with as sick. Ibn Taimiyah further
extends the principle that the fast may be deferred in cases
of hardship, and holds that those engaged in war may not
fast, though thy may not be journeying, for, he adds, the
hardships of war are greater than the hardships of travel
(ZM. I. pp. 165, 166). From this it may be argued that, in
unavoidable cases of very hard labour, the choice of
postponing the fast may be given to those who are engaged in
such labour.
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3
The Arabic word is yutiquna-hu, which
is generally interpreted as meaning those who
are able to do it. If this interpretation be
adopted, the significance would be that invalids
and travellers may either fast afterwards when they
are not under such disability, or they may effect a
redemption by feeding a poor man for every day of
fasting. But I prefer the other interpretation
which some commentators have accepted, viz.,
that yutiquna-hu means those who
find it hard to keep the fast even
afterwards; only such persons are allowed to effect
a redemption by feeding a poor man. This
interpretation is supported by a different reading
yutayaquna-hu which means those on
whom a hard task is imposed. Ibn 'Abbas'
reading yutawwaquna-hu (Bu. 65: surah
2, ch. 25) carries a similar significance, and he
interprets these words as relating to very old
people who are unable to fast.
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To define the limits of sickness or
travel is rather difficult. 'Ata was of opinion that
whatever the ailment, great or small, it entitled a person
to the benefit of the exception (Bu. 65, surah 2, ch. 25).
But generally it has been held that only such sickness as is
likely to cause harm comes under the exception. As regards
travel, there is nothing on record from the Prophet as to
its limit (Zm. I, p. 166). A certain Companion, Dihya, is
reported to have travelled to a village which was about
three miles distant from his own place and to have broken
the fast, and some people followed his example but others
did not (AD. 14:46). But it has been held that the proposed
journey must be one that extends over more than a day, i.e.,
twenty-four hours; according to others, it must extend over
two days; and others still think it necessary that it should
extend over three days at least. But when the journey is
actually started, the fast may be broken, whatever the
distance travelled over may be. Thus of Abu Basra Ghifari, a
Companion of the Prophet, it is related that he took a boat
from Fustat to Alexandria, and broke the fast while yet the
buildings of Fustat had not disappeared (AD. 14:45). I would
interpret the exception relating to sickness and travel as
meaning a sickness or journey which causes inconvenience to
the subject of it, as the exception is followed by the
words, "Allah desires ease for you, and He desires not
hardship for you" (2:185).
The permission to break the fast for
sickness or journey is meant for the convenience of the
person who is under an obligation to keep the fast, as the
words quoted above show. There is, however, a strong opinion
that the permission granted by God must be made use of, just
as in the case of prayer the traveller must shorten his
prayer. The case of prayer and fasting do not, however,
stand on a par, because, if the fasts are broken, the number
of days must be completed afterwards, while in the case of
prayer, there remains no obligation upon the traveller when
the journey is over. The sick person and the traveller have
therefore the option of keeping the fast if they do not find
it hard, or of availing themselves of the permission and
breaking the fast. The permissive nature of the words of the
Quran is reflected in many of the most reliable traditions.
There are reports showing that the Prophet himself kept a
fast while on a journey (Bu. 30:33). In one tradition it is
stated that on a certain journey on a very hot day, only the
Prophet and Ibn Rawahah kept the fast (Bu. 30:35). There are
other traditions showing that when a certain person
questioned the Prophet whether he should or should not break
the fast, when on a journey, his own inclination being for
fasting, the Prophet replied: "Keep the fast if thou likest,
and break it if thou likest" (Bu. 30:33). Anas relates that
they used to travel with the Prophet, and those who kept the
fast did not find fault with those who broke it, nor did
those who broke the fast find fault with those who kept it
(Bu. 30:37). There is not doubt, a saying of the Prophet to
the effect that "it is not a virtue to fast when
journeying," but these words were spoken to a person who was
in severe distress on account of the fast, and around whom
people had gathered to provide shade for him (Bu. 30:36).
Bukhari's heading of this chapter is significant:
"The Prophet's saying to him who was protected with a shade
and the heat was severe. It is not a virtue to fast when
journeying," the meaning evidently being that one should not
fast when one finds it hard. There is a very large number of
traditions on this subject, and some of these seem to
contradict others, but the weight of evidence lies on the
side that one is given the option of keeping the fast or
breaking it.
Who is
Bound to Fast?
The commandments of the Quran
are meant for those who are full-grown, and so is the
injunction relating to fasts. According to Imam Malik,
minors should not fast, but the Caliph Umar is quoted as
saying "Even our children are fasting" (Bu. 30:47). Probably
this may have been done when the weather was not too hot,
and the object may have been to habituate the children to
fasting. From what has been stated above, it would further
appear that only such people are bound to fast as are
physically fit. The jurists lay down three conditions,
viz., that of being baligh (one who has
reached the age of majority), qadir (physically fit)
and 'aqil (sane). Women are bound to fast if they are
free from menstruation (Bu. 30:41). But while the woman who
has the menstruation on is freed from the obligation of
prayer completely, she is bound to make good the fasts that
she has not kept and complete the number of days after
Ramadzan, being treated in this respect like a sick person.
The bleeding of childbirth [note by the webmaster:
lochia meant here] is considered as menstruation with
this difference, that if the mother is nursing the baby, she
can effect a redemption by feeding a poor man. In all cases
in which fasts have to be recovered, whether it is the case
of a sick person or a traveller or a menstruating woman, a
person is at liberty to do it when he or she likes, before
the coming of the next Ramadzan (Bu. 30:40).
Voluntary
Fasts:
In all the four principal
ordinances of Islam – prayer, charity, fasting and
pilgrimage – there is an obligatory part (fardz)
and a voluntary part (nafl). But there are some
restrictions imposed on voluntary fasting, for, if carried
to an extreme, it would weaken the constitution. The
following tradition is illustrative of how far voluntary
fasting may be resorted to: "Ibn Umar says that the Prophet
was informed of my resolve to fast in the day and keep awake
in the night so long as I lived. (On being questioned) I
admitted that I had said so. The Prophet said, Thou canst
not bear this, therefore keep the fast and break it and keep
awake and have sleep, and keep (voluntary) fast for three
days in the month, for virtue has a tenfold reward, and this
would be like your fasting every day. I said, I can bear
more than this. The Prophet said, Then fast for one day and
break the fast for two days. I said, I can bear more than
this. He said, Then keep the fast for one day and break it
for one day, and such was the fasting of David, on whom be
peace, and this is the best of voluntary fasts. I said, I
can bear more than this. The Prophet said, There is nothing
better than this" (Bu. 30 : 56). This tradition shows that
what the Prophet really recommended was voluntary fasting
for three days in the month, but on no account should the
voluntary fast be continuous. There are traditions in which
it is stated that the Prophet especially recommended for
voluntary fasting the last days of Shaban [Bu. 30 : 62;
AD. 14 : 56.] or the ayyam al-bidz, that is the
13th, 14th and
15th of the lunar month [Bu. 30 : 60;
Ah. IV, p. 165.] or Monday and Thursday [AD. 14 :
59.] or the Arafah day, that is, one day before the
'Id al-Adzha [(Tr. 8 : 45). There is a hadith
showing that a cup of milk was sent to the Prophet on the
'Arafah day by Umm al-Fadl to settle the question, and the
Prophet drank it (Bu. 30 : 65).], or the first six days
of Shawwal [AD. 14 : 57.], or Muharram [AD. 14 :
55.] or the Tashriq days, that is,
11th, 12th and
13th of Dhu-l-Hijja [Bu. 30 : 68],
or the 'Ashura', that is, 10th Muharram
[Bu. 30 : 69. The tenth of Muharram was particularly
observed as a fasting day before the fasting of Ramadzan was
made obligatory, but afterwards it was voluntary (Bu. 30 :
1).]; but his own practice was that he never specified
any particular day or days for voluntary fasting, as the
following tradition shows: "'Aishah was asked, Did the Holy
Prophet, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, specify
any days (for fasting). She said, No" (Bu. 30 :
64).
Restrictions
on Voluntary Fasting:
Voluntary fasting is
particularly prohibited on the two 'Id days (Bu. 30 : 66).
It is also forbidden that Friday should be specially chosen
for voluntary fasting (Bu. 30 : 63). Nor should a day or two
before Ramadzan be specially selected (Bu. 30 : 14). Other
restrictions are that it should not be resorted to if it is
likely to interfere with other duties. There is no
asceticism in Islam, and no one is allowed to go to the
length of neglecting his worldly duties for the sake of
religious exercises. Religion is meant to enable a man to
live a better life, and voluntary fasting should be
undertaken only if the aim is to enable a man to achieve
this objective. This is made clear in the story of Abu
Darda' and Salman, between whom brotherhood had been
established by the Prophet. Salman paid a visit to Abu
Darda' and saw his wife in a neglected condition
(mutabadhdhila). Being asked the reason she replied
that Abu Darda' had become an ascetic. When Abu Darda' came
home and the meals were served, Abu Darda' refused to eat
because he was fasting. Salman said that he would not take
any food until Abu Darda' took it, so he ate (and broke the
fast). When the night came Abu Darda' woke up after a little
rest, Salman asked him to remain sleeping, and when it was
the latter part of the night, they both said there
Tahajjud prayers. Then Salman said to Abu Darda':
"Verily thou owest a duty to thy Lord, and thou owest a duty
to thyself, and thou owest a duty to thy wife and children."
When this was mentioned to the Prophet, he approved of what
Salman had said and done (Bu. 30 : 51). Here, therefore the
husband was forbidden to fast, for the sake of the wife.
Similarly the wife should not resort to voluntary fasting
without the permission of her husband (Bu. 67 : 85). And as
the host in the instance cited above broke the fast on
account of his guest, there is a tradition stating that the
guest should not undertake a voluntary fast, without the
permission of the host (Tr. 8 :69).
Expiatory
Fasts:
Fasts are also recommended as
an expiation for breaking certain commandments. The
expiatory fasts mentioned in the Quran are, (1) two months'
successive fasting when a Muslim has killed a Muslim by
mistake and the killer has not the means sufficient to free
a slave (4 : 92); (2) two months' successive fasting when
the husband resorts to practice called zihar (putting
away of the wife by saying, Thou art to me as the back of my
mother), and he has not the means to free a slave (58 : 3,
4); (3) three days' fasting as an expiation for taking an
oath by which one deprives oneself of something lawful when
one is unable to free a slave or feed ten poor men (5 : 89);
(4) fasting as decided on by two judges, as an expiation for
killing game while one is on pilgrimage as an alternative to
feeding the poor (5 : 95).
Tradition mentions two months'
successive fasting by way of expiation when a fast during
Ramadzan is broken intentionally (Bu. 30 : 30). This was the
case of a man who had sexual intercourse with his wife while
fasting in Ramadzan, and the Prophet told him to free a
slave. On being told that he was too poor for that, he was
asked if he could fast for two months successively, and he
replied in the negative. Then he was asked if he could feed
sixty poor men, and he again said, No. Thereupon the Prophet
waited till there came a sack of dates to be given in
charity, and the Prophet gave this away to the breaker of
the fast, telling him to give it in charity. He said that
there was no one in Madinah poorer than himself, upon which
the Prophet laughed heartily and allowed him to take away
the sack of dates for his own use. This would show that the
keeping of expiatory fasts for two months was only meant to
make the violator feel contrite for his offence. Abu
Hurairah was, however, of opinion that the act of not
fasting one day in Ramadzan cannot be expiated, even if the
man fasts all his life; others (Sha'bi, Ibn Jubair, Qatada,
etc.) have held that the expiation for not fasting for one
day is simply one day's fast to be kept afterwards (Bu. 30 :
29).
Compensatory
Fasts:
Fasting is also mentioned as
being resorted to by way of effecting redemption
(fidya, that is to say, as a compensation for not
being able to do some act. Thus in the case of pilgrims who,
for some reason, cannot observe fully the requirements of
ihram, compensatory fasting (for three days) is
mentioned as an alternative to giving away something in
charity and sacrificing an animal (2 : 196); and in the case
of pilgrims who may in combining 'umra with
hajj (tamattu') get out of the condition of
ihram in the interval between the two, three days'
fasting during the pilgrimage and seven days' after
returning from the pilgrimage (2 : 196).
Fasting in
Fulfilment of a Vow:
An instance of a vow to take a
fast is mentioned in the Quran where Mary the mother of
Jesus says: "Surely I have vowed a fast to the Beneficent
God, so I shall not speak to any man today" (19 : 26). This
however appears to be only a fast to keep silent and not to
talk with any person; a similar fast of silence is spoken of
in the case of Zacharias: "Thy sign is that thou shouldst
not speak to men for three days except by signs, and
remember thy Lord much and glorify Him in the evening by
signs, and remember thy Lord much and glorify Him in the
evening and the morning" (3 : 40). The case of Zacharias
shows that the object of the fast of silence was the
remembrance of God. From certain traditions it appears that
if one has vowed to keep a fast, the vow must be fulfilled
(Bu. 30 : 42), while in one report it is stated that a woman
came to the Prophet and spoke of her mother who died; and
she had taken a vow to fast for a certain number of days and
the Prophet told her to fulfil the vow (ibid.). But
there is no tradition recommending the taking of such
vows.
Limits of
the Fast:
The limits of a fast are
clearly laid down in the Quran: "And eat and drink until the
whiteness of the day becomes distinct from the blackness of
the night at dawn (al-fajr), then complete the fast
till night (al lail)" (2 : 187). Lail (night)
begins when the sun sets, and hence the fast in the
terminology of Islam is kept from the first appearance of
dawn, which is generally about an hour and a half before
sunrise, till sunset. Wisal (lit., joining
together) is fasting, or continuing the fast throughout
the night and then the next day so that there is no break,
is definitely prohibited (Bu. 30 : 48, 49). But one
tradition permits continuity of fast till daybreak (Bu. 30 :
50). This would mean that a man may not, if he chooses,
break the fast at sunset but must take the morning meal for
fasting for the next day; in other words, he must take a
meal once in twenty-four hours at least. Wisal was
prohibited lest people should, in trying continuous fast,
impair their health or make themselves unfit for worldly
work, for it appears that the Prophet himself sometimes kept
a continuous fast (Bu. 30 : 48, 49); but, for how many days,
is not definitely known. Only on one occasion, when some of
the Companions joined with the Prophet in keeping a
continuous fast, it was continued for three successive days,
and being the close of the month, the moon appeared on the
evening of the third day, the Prophet adding that if the
moon had not appeared he would have continued the fast. When
some one asked him, why he forbade wisal to others,
when he himself kept continuous fasts, he replied: "I pass
the night while my Lord gives me food and makes me drink"
(Bu. 30 : 49). He referred of course to the spiritual food
which sometimes makes a man bear hunger and thirst in an
extraordinary way, thus, in a sense, taking the place of
food and drink. But all men had not the same spiritual
sustenance, and, moreover, continuity of fast, if allowed
generally, would have given rise to ascetic practices which
Islam does not encourage. It should be noted in this
connection that fasting, according to the Quran, meant
abstaining from food as well as from drink, and three days'
continual suffering of hunger and thirst, in a hot country
like Arabia, shows the extraordinary power of endurance
which the Companions of the Prophet had developed, while his
own power of endurance was much greater. This endurance was
no doubt due to extraordinary spiritual powers.
In this connection it may be further
noted that, though the taking of a morning meal is not made
obligatory, yet special stress is laid on it, and it is said
to be a source of blessing, because it enables a man the
better to cope with the hardship of the fast. The Prophet is
reported to have said: "Take the morning meal, for there is
blessing in the morning meal (suhur)" (Bu. 30 : 20).
This meal was taken very near the break of dawn. One
Companion relates that, after taking the morning meal, he
hastened to the mosque so that he might be able to join the
morning prayer. Another says that the interval between the
finishing of the morning meal and the beginning of prayer in
congregation was such that hardly fifty verses could be
recited in it (Bu. 9 : 27). It is even recommended that the
morning meal should be taken as near the break of dawn as
possible (Ah. V, p. 147). In one tradition it is stated that
the adhan [Call for morning prayers, signifying
break of dawn] of Bilal should not lead you to give up
the morning meal, for, it is added, he utters the
adhan while yet it is night, so that the man who is
saying his Tahajjud prayers may finish his prayers
and the one who is sleeping may get up from his sleep (Bu.
10 : 13). And according to another, the morning meal was to
be continued till Ibn Umm Maktum gave the call to prayer,
for he was a blind man and he did not give the call till
(dawn became so clear and well established that) "people
called out to him, the dawn has broken, the dawn has broken"
(Bu. 10 : 11). And even if the adhan is called out
when the dawn has fully appeared, and a man has a cup in his
hand ready to drink, he need not put it away and may drink
it up (AD. 14 : 18).
As it is recommended in the case of
the morning meal that it should be as late as possible, it
is recommended that the breaking of the fast should be as
early as possible. The Prophet is reported to have said that
when the sun is set, the fast should be broken (Bu. 30 :
45). And according to another tradition: "People will have
the good so long as they hasten in breaking the fast" (Bu.
30 : 45). Some wait to break the fast till they see the
stars, thinking that the night does not set in till darkness
is spread, but there is no authority for this.
The
Niyyah:
A good deal of
misunderstanding prevails on the question of niyyah
in the observance of fasts. The niyyah really means
intention, aim or purpose in the doing
of a thing; but it is wrongly supposed that the
niyyah consists in the repetition of certain words
stating that one intends to do so and so. Bukhari shows the
true significance of niyyah when he gives as the
heading to one of his chapters: "He who fasts during
Ramadzan having faith (in God) (iman-an) and seeking
His pleasure (ihtisab-an) and having an aim or
purpose (niyyat-an)" (Bu. 30 : 6). And he adds a
portion of a tradition reported by 'Aishah in which it is
stated that "people will be raised up (on the Judgement Day)
according to their aims ('ala niyyati-him)." The very
first tradition with which Bukhari opens his book is an
example of what niyyah means: "(Good) actions shall
be judged only by their aims4
– innama-l-a'malu bi-l-niyyat." Hence if a good
action is done with a bad aim, it shall not benefit a doer.
Exactly the same object is in view in the statement that
there must be a niyyah in fasting, as Bukhari says:
that is, the man who fasts must have an aim or purpose
before him. The aim or purpose of fasting has already been
stated, being, according to the Quran, the attainment of
taqwa, to make the fast a spiritual discipline, to
attain nearness to God and to seek His pleasure in all one's
actions, and to make it a moral discipline, to shun all
evil. It is in this sense alone that the niyyah is of
the essence of fasting, as it is in fact of the essence of
all good actions.
|
4
I have
translated the word a'mal as meaning
good actions. A reference to what
follows in the report makes it clear, for the
example of actions given there is hijra, the
flight of a man for the sake of his principles
which is an action of the highest value, but as the
report tells us, if the hijra is undertaken
with a bad aim in view, to attain worldly wealth or
for the love of a woman, it loses all its value.
That there can be no question of a good aim in evil
actions is self-evident, and hence by a'mal
in this report are meant good actions.
|
"Formulating the niyyah," or
the expression on one's intention in set words, is unknown
to the Quran and the Tradition, and is in fact meaningless,
for a man will not fast unless he intends to do it. Only in
the case of voluntary fasting, it is stated in a tradition,
that the Prophet sent a crier to inform the people on the
day of 'Asuhra', in daytime that people who had not eaten
anything up to that time may fast. And of Abu Darda', it is
related that he used to ask his wife if there was any food,
and if none was found, he used to keep the fast (Bu. 30 :
21). According to 'Aishah, the Prophet used to ask if there
was any food in the house, and when none was found he would
fast (AD. 14 : 70). In the case of voluntary fasts one can
understand the making up of mind in daytime, but there is no
question of such intention in the month of Ramadzan, when
everybody knows that he must fast.
What Breaks
the Fast:
The word for breaking the fast
is iftar, from fatr meaning to
cleave or split a thing lengthwise
(R.), and the things which break a fast are called
muftirat, pl. of muftir. The three things
which one should abstain from in fasting being eating,
drinking and having sexual intercourse, these three, if
resorted to of free will [Therefore anything done under
compulsion or involuntarily does not break the fast.]
and intentionally, between day-break and sunset, would break
the fast, but if done through forgetfulness or
inadvertently, the fast remains and must be completed (Bu.
30 : 26). Rinsing the mouth with water or with a toothbrush,
gargling or sniffling the water into the nostrils, even if a
little water passes into the throat unintentionally, does
not break the fast (Bu. 30 : 25, 26, 27, 28). Nor does
taking a bath or keeping a wet cloth on the head or pouring
water on the head break the fast, even though done
intentionally to relieve the severity of thirst (Bu. 30 :
25; MM. 7 : 4-ii). Cupping and vomiting also do not break
the fast, for as Ibn 'Abbas and 'Ikrama say, a fast is
broken by that which goes into the body, not by that which
comes out (Bu. 30 : 32) [Note: There is a difference of
opinion on some of these minor points, but what has been
said here is based on weightier authority]. It is
related that the Prophet would kiss his wife when fasting
(Bu. 30 : 23). There is a difference of opinion regarding
the punishment for breaking a fast intentionally before its
time, as shown under the heading "Expiatory fasts." The
Quran is silent on this point, while Tradition only shows
that it is sufficient that the violator should be sincerely
repentant. If fast is broken on a cloudy day, under the
impression that the sun has set, and the sun then appears,
then the fast should be completed (Bu. 30 : 46). If a man is
fasting and then undertakes a journey, the fast may be
broken (Bu. 30 : 34). The same rule may be followed in the
case of sickness. In the case of voluntary fast, a man is at
liberty to break the fast on account of a guest or the
persistence of a friend (Bu. 30 : 51).
Ethical
Side of Fasting:
What has been said hitherto
relates only to the external side of the fast but, as stated
in the beginning, the essence of the fast is its moral and
spiritual value, and the Quran and Tradition have laid
special stress on this. "Whoever does not give up," says one
tradition "lying and acting falsely, Allah does not stand in
need of his giving up food and drink" (Bu. 30 : 8). This is
true of all the Islamic injunctions. A man who says his
prayers and does not keep in view their inner meaning, the
object of prayer, is condemned in clear words: "Woe to the
praying ones, who are unmindful of (the object of) their
prayers" (107 : 4, 5). In another tradition, the ethical
side of the fast is shown in the following words: "Fasting
is a shield, so let the man who fasts not indulge in any
foul speech or do any evil deed (la yajhal), and if
any one fights or quarrels with him or abuses him, he should
say, I am fasting. By Him Who holds my soul in His hand, the
breath of the faster is pleasanter with Allah than the scent
of musk" (Bu. 30 : 2). It is not refraining from food that
makes the breath of the faster so sweet; it is refraining
from foul speech and abuse and evil words and deeds of all
kinds, so much so that he does not even utter an offensive
word by way of retaliation. Thus a fasting person undergoes
not only a physical discipline by curbing his carnal
desires, the craving for food and drink, and the sex
appetite, but he is actually required to undergo a direct
moral discipline by avoiding all kinds of evil words an evil
deeds. It is not only a training on the physical side, which
has a moral value; it is a direct training on the spiritual
side as well. In the sight of God, as plainly stated in
these traditions, the fast loses its value not only by
taking food or drink but also by telling a lie, using foul
language, acting unfaithfully, or doing an evil
deed.
The moral value of the fasting
discipline is further enhanced by laying stress on the doing
of good to humanity in the month of Ramadzan. The example of
the Prophet is quoted in this connection in a tradition.
"The Prophet, peace and blessings of Allah be upon him, was
the most bountiful of all people, and he exceeded his own
bounty in the month of Ramadzan" (Bu. 30 : 7). Another
tradition describes the month of Ramadzan as "a month in
which the sufferings of the poor and the hungry must be
attended to" (MM. 7 : I-iii).
These injunctions make clear the
significance of the tradition which says that when the month
of Ramadzan commences, "the doors of Heaven are opened and
the doors of Hell are closed and the devils are put into
chains" (Bu. 30 : 5). This is true of the man who keeps the
fast, both physically and morally. The devils are chained in
his case because he curbs and conquers the lower passions,
by exciting which the devil makes a man fall into evil. The
doors of Hell are closed on him because he shuns all evil
which is man's hell. The doors of Heaven are opened for him
because he rises above physical desires and devotes himself
to the service of humanity. In one tradition, fasting is
described as bringing about a forgiveness of sins "for him
who fasts having faith (in God) and to seek His pleasure and
having an aim or purpose" (Bu. 2 : 28; 30 : 6). There is not
the least doubt that fasting as qualified here, that is,
when it is kept having true faith in God and when the person
fasting resorts to it as a discipline for seeking the
pleasure of God, is practical repentance of the highest
value; and when a man sincerely repents of sins, his
previous sins are forgiven, because the course of his life
has been changed.
There is, however, yet another sense
in which the doors of Heaven are opened to a fasting person
in the month of Ramadzan. It is specially suited for
spiritual advancement, for attaining nearness to God.
Speaking of Ramadzan, the Quran says: "And when My servants
ask thee concerning Me, surely I am nigh; I answer the
prayer of the suppliant when he calls on Me" (2 : 186). The
ways of attaining nearness to God are here spoken of as
being specially opened in Ramadzan, and this nearness is to
be sought through prayer. It is for this reason that the
Prophet used to have special regard for Tahajjud
prayers in the month of Ramadzan. And he also recommended
that his followers should, during this month, awake at night
for prayers (Bu. 2 : 27).
I'tikaf:
I'tikaf [I'tikaf
is derived from 'akafa 'alai-hi, meaning
he kept, or clove, to it
constantly or perseveringly (LL.)] means
literally to stay in a place; technically it is
staying in a mosque for a certain number of days, especially
the last ten days of the month of Ramadzan. Bukhari has
devoted a whole book to I'tikaf (book 33), showing
the practice of the Prophet in this connection. During these
days, the man who enters the state of I'tikaf
(mu'takif) dissociates himself from all worldly
affairs, and he does not leave the mosque unless there is
necessity (hajah), such as evacuation, or having a
bath, etc. (Bu. 33 : 3, 4). Usually a tent was pitched for
the Prophet in the yard of the mosque (Bu. 33 : 7). Women
are also allowed to enter a state of I'tikaf (Bu. 33
: 6). The mu'takif may be visited by other people or
by his wife (Bu. 33 : 11). According to one tradition, he
may visit a sick person (AD. 14 : 78) [Note: There are
other traditions showing that he should not visit the sick,
not assist at a burial, but evidently such deeds fall within
the meaning of hajah.]. An I'tikaf may be
performed in other days (AD. 15 : 75), but the last ten days
of Ramadzan are specially mentioned in traditions and
I'tikaf is spoken of in the Quran in connection with
Ramadzan.
Lailat
al-Qadr:
One of the last ten nights of
the month of Ramadzan is called Lailat al-Qadr,
the night of grandeur or majesty. In the
Quran, it is spoken of in two places. In ch. 97, it is
mentioned thrice as lailat al-Qadr: "Surely We
revealed it on lailat al-Qadr. And what will make
thee comprehend what lailat al-Qadr is? Lailat
al-Qadr is better than a thousand months. The angels and
the Spirit descend in it by the permission of their Lord
– for every affair – Peace! it is till the break
of morning." Here this night is spoken of as the night in
which the Quran was revealed, and it is further stated that
it is the night on which angels and the Spirit descend. It
is also mentioned in ch. 44 where it is called a blessed
night (laila mubaraka): "By the Book that
makes manifest (the truth)! We revealed it on a blessed
night – truly We are ever-warning. Therein is made
clear every affair – full of wisdom – a command
from Us" (44 : 2-5). It will be seen that, in both places,
the Quran is spoken of as having been revealed on this
night, and elsewhere it is stated that the Quran was
revealed in the month of Ramadzan, which shows that this
night occurs in the month of Ramadzan. The revelation of the
Quran on this night means that its revelation began on that
night; in other words, the first revelation came to the
Prophet on this night. It is called a blessed night or the
grand night because in it was laid the basis of a new
revelation to the world which contains every commandment
(amr) full of wisdom and knowledge (hakim).
The lailat al-Qadr is, therefore, as it were, the
anniversary of the revelation of the Quran.
As shown above, the last ten days of
Ramadzan are specially observed as days of devotion, so much
so that, though Islam discourages asceticism, yet in these
ten days, a Muslim is allowed to lead an ascetic life, by
keeping himself to the mosque and giving up all worldly
affairs. There are various traditions showing that the
Muslims should look for this night as one of the odd nights
in the last ten nights of Ramadzan (Bu. 32 : 3) or in the
last seven nights (Bu. 32 : 2). According to some traditions
it is the twenty-fifth or twenty-seventh or twenty-ninth
night of Ramadzan. One tradition says that some of the
Companions of the Prophet were shown lailat al-Qadr
in their dreams in the last seven nights (MM. 7 : 9-i). It
should be borne in mind that lailat al-Qadr is a
spiritual experience, as it was the spiritual, not the
physical, experience of the Prophet, and as the last-quoted
tradition shows, it was the spiritual experience of the
Companions, and therefore it is an error to think that it
can be beheld as a physical experience, or that any physical
change is witnessed on that night. It is the spiritual
experience of the man who exerts himself in Ramadzan to seek
nearness to the Divine Being.
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